VERB -ING FORM

Christmas Every Day

by William Dean Howells

The little girl came into her papa's study, as she always did Saturday morning before breakfast, and asked for a story. He tried to beg off that morning, for he was very busy, but she would not let him. So he began:

"Well, once there was a little pig--"

She put her hand over his mouth and stopped him at the word. She said she had heard little pig-stories till she was perfectly sick of them.

"Well, what kind of story shall I tell, then?"

"About Christmas. It's getting to be the season. It's past Thanksgiving already."

"It seems to me," her papa argued, "that I've told as often about Christmas as I have about little pigs."

"No difference! Christmas is more interesting."

"Well!" Her papa roused himself from his writing by a great effort. "Well, then, I'll tell you about the little girl that wanted it Christmas every day in the year. How would you like that?"

"First-rate!" said the little girl; and she nestled into comfortable shape in his lap, ready for listening.

"Very well, then, this little pig--Oh, what are you pounding me for?"

"Because you said little pig instead of little girl."

"I should like to know what's the difference between a little pig and a little girl that wanted it Christmas every day!"

"Papa," said the little girl, warningly, "if you don't go on, I'll give it to you!" And at this her papa darted off like lightning, and began to tell the story as fast as he could.

Well, once there was a little girl who liked Christmas so much that she wanted it to be Christmas every day in the year; and as soon as Thanksgiving was over she began to send postal-cards to the old Christmas Fairy to ask if she mightn't have it. But the old fairy never answered any of the postals; and after a while the little girl found out that the Fairy was pretty particular, and wouldn't notice anything but letters--not even correspondence cards in envelopes; but real letters on sheets of paper, and sealed outside with a monogram--or your initial, anyway. So, then, she began to send her letters; and in about three weeks--or just the day before Christmas, it was--she got a letter from the Fairy, saying she might have it Christmas every day for a year, and then they would see about having it longer.

The little girl was a good deal excited already, preparing for the old-fashioned, once-a-year Christmas that was coming the next day, and perhaps the Fairy's promise didn't make such an impression on her as it would have made at some other time. She just resolved to keep it to herself, and surprise everybody with it as it kept coming true; and then it slipped out of her mind altogether.

She had a splendid Christmas. She went to bed early, so as to let Santa Claus have a chance at the stockings, and in the morning she was up the first of anybody and went and felt them, and found hers all lumpy with packages of candy, and oranges and grapes, and pocket-books and rubber balls, and all kinds of small presents, and her big brother's with nothing but the tongs in them, and her young lady sister's with a new silk umbrella, and her papa's and mamma's with potatoes and pieces of coal wrapped up in tissue-paper, just as they always had every Christmas. Then she waited around till the rest of the family were up, and she was the first to burst into the library, when the doors were opened, and look at the large presents laid out on the library-table--books, and portfolios, and boxes of stationery, and breastpins, and dolls, and little stoves, and dozens of handkerchiefs, and ink-stands, and skates, and snow-shovels, and photograph-frames, and little easels, and boxes of water-colors, and Turkish paste, and nougat, and candied cherries, and dolls' houses, and waterproofs--and the big Christmas-tree, lighted and standing in a waste-basket in the middle.

She had a splendid Christmas all day. She ate so much candy that she did not want any breakfast; and the whole forenoon the presents kept pouring in that the expressman had not had time to deliver the night before; and she went round giving the presents she had got for other people, and came home and ate turkey and cranberry for dinner, and plum-pudding and nuts and raisins and oranges and more candy, and then went out and coasted, and came in with a stomach-ache, crying; and her papa said he would see if his house was turned into that sort of fool's paradise another year; and they had a light supper, and pretty early everybody went to bed cross.

Here the little girl pounded her papa in the back, again.

"Well, what now? Did I say pigs?"

"You made them act like pigs."

"Well, didn't they?"

"No matter; you oughtn't to put it into a story."

"Very well, then, I'll take it all out."

Her father went on:

The little girl slept very heavily, and she slept very late, but she was wakened at last by the other children dancing round her bed with their stockings full of presents in their hands. she  was dancing round her bad with their stocking full of present in their hands.

"What is it?" said the little girl, and she rubbed her eyes and tried to rise up in bed.

"Christmas! Christmas! Christmas!" they all shouted, and waved their stockings.

"Nonsense! It was Christmas yesterday."

Her brothers and sisters just laughed. "We don't know about that. It's Christmas to-day, anyway. You come into the library and see."

Then all at once it flashed on the little girl that the Fairy was keeping her promise, and her year of Christmases was beginning. She was dreadfully sleepy, but she sprang up like a lark--a lark that had overeaten itself and gone to bed cross--and darted into the library. There it was again! Books, and portfolios, and boxes of stationery, and breastpins--

"You needn't go over it all, papa; I guess I can remember just what was there," said the little girl.

Well, and there was the Christmas-tree blazing away, and the family picking out their presents, but looking pretty sleepy, and her father perfectly puzzled, and her mother ready to cry. "I'm sure I don't see how I'm to dispose of all these things," said her mother, and her father said it seemed to him they had had something just like it the day before, but he supposed he must have dreamed it. This struck the little girl as the best kind of a joke; and so she ate so much candy she didn't want any breakfast, and went round carrying presents, and had turkey and cranberry for dinner, and then went out and coasted, and came in with a--

"Papa!"

"Well, what now?"

"What did you promise, you forgetful thing?"

"Oh! oh yes!"

Well, the next day, it was just the same thing over again, but everybody getting crosser; and at the end of a week's time so many people had lost their tempers that you could pick up lost tempers anywhere; they perfectly strewed the ground. Even when people tried to recover their tempers they usually got somebody else's, and it made the most dreadful mix.

The little girl began to get frightened, keeping the secret all to herself; she wanted to tell her mother, but she didn't dare to; and she was ashamed to ask the Fairy to take back her gift, it seemed ungrateful and ill-bred, and she thought she would try to stand it, but she hardly knew how she could, for a whole year. So it went on and on, and it was Christmas on St. Valentine's Day and Washington's Birthday, just the same as any day, and it didn't skip even the First of April, though everything was counterfeit that day, and that was some little relief.

After a while coal and potatoes began to be awfully scarce, so many had been wrapped up in tissue-paper to fool papas and mammas with. Turkeys got to be about a thousand dollars apiece--

"Papa!"

"Well, what?"

"You're beginning to fib."

"Well, two thousand, then."

And they got to passing off almost anything for turkeys--half-grown humming-birds, and even rocs out of the Arabian Nights--the real turkeys were so scarce. And cranberries--well, they asked a diamond apiece for cranberries. All the woods and orchards were cut down for Christmas-trees, and where the woods and orchards used to be it looked just like a stubble-field, with the stumps. After a while they had to make Christmas-trees out of rags, and stuff them with bran, like old-fashioned dolls; but there were plenty of rags, because people got so poor, buying presents for one another, that they couldn't get any new clothes, and they just wore their old ones to tatters. They got so poor that everybody had to go to the poor-house, except the confectioners, and the fancy-store keepers, and the picture-book sellers, and the expressmen; and they all got so rich and proud that they would hardly wait upon a person when he came to buy. It was perfectly shameful!

Well, after it had gone on about three or four months, the little girl, whenever she came into the room in the morning and saw those great ugly, lumpy stockings dangling at the fire-place, and the disgusting presents around everywhere, used to just sit down and burst out crying. In six months she was perfectly exhausted; she couldn't even cry any more; she just lay on the lounge and rolled her eyes and panted. About the beginning of October she took to sitting down on dolls wherever she found them--French dolls, or any kind--she hated the sight of them so; and by Thanksgiving she was crazy, and just slammed her presents across the room.

By that time people didn't carry presents around nicely any more. They flung them over the fence, or through the window, or anything; and, instead of running their tongues out and taking great pains to write "For dear Papa," or "Mamma," or "Brother," or "Sister," or "Susie," or "Sammie," or "Billie," or "Bobbie," or "Jimmie," or "Jennie," or whoever it was, and troubling to get the spelling right, and then signing their names, and "Xmas, 18--," they used to write in the gift-books, "Take it, you horrid old thing!" and then go and bang it against the front door. Nearly everybody had built barns to hold their presents, but pretty soon the barns overflowed, and then they used to let them lie out in the rain, or anywhere. Sometimes the police used to come and tell them to shovel their presents off the sidewalk, or they would arrest them.

"I thought you said everybody had gone to the poor-house," interrupted the little girl.

"They did go, at first," said her papa; "but after a while the poor-houses got so full that they had to send the people back to their own houses. They tried to cry, when they got back, but they couldn't make the least sound."

"Why couldn't they?"

"Because they had lost their voices, saying 'Merry Christmas' so much. Did I tell you how it was on the Fourth of July?"

"No; how was it?" And the little girl nestled closer, in expectation of something uncommon.

Well, the night before, the boys stayed up to celebrate, as they always do, and fell asleep before twelve o'clock, as usual, expecting to be wakened by the bells and cannon. But it was nearly eight o'clock before the first boy in the United States woke up, and then he found out what the trouble was. As soon as he could get his clothes on he ran out of the house and smashed a big cannon-torpedo down on the pavement; but it didn't make any more noise than a damp wad of paper; and after he tried about twenty or thirty more, he began to pick them up and look at them. Every single torpedo was a big raisin! Then he just streaked it up-stairs, and examined his fire-crackers and toy-pistol and two-dollar collection of fireworks, and found that they were nothing but sugar and candy painted up to look like fireworks! Before ten o'clock every boy in the United States found out that his Fourth of July things had turned into Christmas things; and then they just sat down and cried--they were so mad. There are about twenty million boys in the United States, and so you can imagine what a noise they made. Some men got together before night, with a little powder that hadn't turned into purple sugar yet, and they said they would fire off one cannon, anyway. But the cannon burst into a thousand pieces, for it was nothing but rock-candy, and some of the men nearly got killed. The Fourth of July orations all turned into Christmas carols, and when anybody tried to read the Declaration, instead of saying, "When in the course of human events it becomes necessary," he was sure to sing, "God rest you, merry gentlemen." It was perfectly awful.

The little girl drew a deep sigh of satisfaction.

"And how was it at Thanksgiving?"

Her papa hesitated. "Well, I'm almost afraid to tell you. I'm afraid you'll think it's wicked."

"Well, tell, anyway," said the little girl.

Well, before it came Thanksgiving it had leaked out who had caused all these Christmases. The little girl had suffered so much that she had talked about it in her sleep; and after that hardly anybody would play with her. People just perfectly despised her, because if it had not been for her greediness it wouldn't have happened; and now, when it came Thanksgiving, and she wanted them to go to church, and have squash-pie and turkey, and show their gratitude, they said that all the turkeys had been eaten up for her old Christmas dinners, and if she would stop the Christmases, they would see about the gratitude. Wasn't it dreadful? And the very next day the little girl began to send letters to the Christmas Fairy, and then telegrams, to stop it. But it didn't do any good; and then she got to calling at the Fairy's house, but the girl that came to the door always said, "Not at home," or "Engaged," or "At dinner," or something like that; and so it went on till it came to the old once-a-year Christmas Eve. The little girl fell asleep, and when she woke up in the morning--

"She found it was all nothing but a dream," suggested the little girl.

"No, indeed!" said her papa. "It was all every bit true!"

"Well, what did she find out, then?"

"Why, that it wasn't Christmas at last, and wasn't ever going to be, any more. Now it's time for breakfast."

The little girl held her papa fast around the neck.

"You sha'n't go if you're going to leave it so!"

"How do you want it left?"

"Christmas once a year."

"All right," said her papa; and he went on again.

Well, there was the greatest rejoicing all over the country, and it extended clear up into Canada. The people met together everywhere, and kissed and cried for joy. The city carts went around and gathered up all the candy and raisins and nuts, and dumped them into the river; and it made the fish perfectly sick; and the whole United States, as far out as Alaska, was one blaze of bonfires, where the children were burning up their gift-books and presents of all kinds. They had the greatest time!

The little girl went to thank the old Fairy because she had stopped its being Christmas, and she said she hoped she would keep her promise and see that Christmas never, never came again. Then the Fairy frowned, and asked her if she was sure she knew what she meant; and the little girl asked her, Why not? and the old Fairy said that now she was behaving just as greedily as ever, and she'd better look out. This made the little girl think it all over carefully again, and she said she would be willing to have it Christmas about once in a thousand years; and then she said a hundred, and then she said ten, and at last she got down to one. Then the Fairy said that was the good old way that had pleased people ever since Christmas began, and she was agreed. Then the little girl said, "What're your shoes made of?" And the Fairy said, "Leather." And the little girl said, "Bargain's done forever," and skipped off, and hippity-hopped the whole way home, she was so glad.

"How will that do?" asked the papa.

"First-rate!" said the little girl; but she hated to have the story stop, and was rather sober. However, her mamma put her head in at the door, and asked her papa:

"Are you never coming to breakfast? What have you been telling that child?"

"Oh, just a moral tale."

The little girl caught him around the neck again.

"We know! Don't you tell what, papa! Don't you tell what!"

http://americanliterature.com/author/william-dean-howells/short-story/christmas-every-day

Analysis:

Verb ing as a gerund : Object of Verb

She loves making homemade present for her family.

Verb ing as a adjective : In addition, more or most probably be placed in front of the present participle to form the comparative and superlative degree.

 Christmas is more interesting.

Verb ing as a verb : As a verb, present participle is placed after the auxiliary verb

Her year of Christmases was beginning.

She was dancing round her bad with their stocking full of present in their hands.

Name : Mitha Soviani Putri

Class  : 4SA04

NPM : 18611708

Direct and Indirect Speech (Softskill)

Deals with Megawati off 

as SBY refuses to blink 

President Susilo Bambang Yudho-yono and former president Megawati Soekarnoputri almost clinched a historic deal late Wednesday to end their protracted enmity and forge a political coalition.

Intense lobbying, largely by vice president-elect Jusuf Kalla, to have the two leaders bury the hatchet, however, collapsed after Yudhoyono was accused of failing to show sincerity in mending the ties. 

According to Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) politicians, Megawati, through her representatives, demanded Yudhoyono on Wednesday first support the PDI-P coalition’s bid for House leadership in order to regain her trust. 

Yudhoyono, however, turned down the request. 

He demanded to meet Megawati first before agreeing to back the bid. The PDI-P eventually lost the bid early Thursday to the Red-and-White Coalition led by defeated presidential candidate Prabowo Subianto. 

“The two leaders intended to meet. But given the different point of views, the meeting could not be realized,” said PDI-P senior politician Pramono Anung on Thursday. 

“Pak SBY wants to meet first and talk while Ibu Megawati wants him to join us first [in the bid for House leadership] and then meet,” he said.

According to Pramono, Megawati had assigned president-elect Joko “Jokowi” Widodo, Kalla, her daughter Puan Maharani and NasDem Party patron Surya Paloh to meet Yudhoyono prior to the House’s leadership selection process. 

“If only Yudhoyono had agreed to accept them, Megawati would have called him through Puan. But he refused to accept them,” said Pramono. 

Since her defeat against Yudhoyono in the 2004 presidential election, Megawati has entirely shut the door on her former coordinating security and political minister. 

Megawati’s grudge stemmed from Yudhoyono’s decision to form a political party and run in the election while serving in her Cabinet, despite Yudhoyono’s previous pledges to remain loyal to Megawati.

Her rage led to the PDI-P becoming the opposition party during Yudhoyono’s 10-year administration, which is due to end on Oct. 20. 

Renewed hope for the reconciliation of the two leaders, however, emerged after Yudhoyono received waves of public criticism for allowing the passage of a law that scrapped direct elections for governors, mayors and regents in mid-September. 

Yudhoyono has planned to issue a government regulation in lieu of law (Perppu) in a bid to annul the newly passed regional election law, which is supported by the Red-and-White Coalition. For the Perppu to gain sufficient support in the House, Yudhoyono will need the PDI-P’s backing.

Yudhoyono’s camp proposed late on Tuesday that it would support the PDI-P’s bid for the House leadership in exchange for the party’s later support for the Perppu. The camp would also be supported by the National Mandate Party (PAN) in order to gain sufficient voting power. 

The President invited Jokowi to discuss the plan and hoped to lure Megawati with the proposal late on Tuesday. 

“We’ve talked about a lot of things. There are talks about the House leadership, as well as our shared vision over the need to return the direct elections,” said Jokowi on Wednesday.

But the simmering optimism for a coalition of the PDI-P and Yudhoyono’s Democratic Party in the House was short-lived as several hours before the start of the leadership selection process, which ran until Thursday morning, the coalition deal was called off. 

Following the failed deal, the PDI-P coalition was short of one party to be able to nominate its candidates for the House leadership.

The Red-and-White Coalition passed Golkar Party treasurer Setya Novanto as House speaker and the Democratic Party’s Agus Hermanto along with the Gerindra Party’s Fadli Zon, PAN’s Taufik Kurniawan and Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) lawmaker Fahri Hamzah as deputy speakers.

“From my side, I have wanted to meet with Ibu Megawati since long ago. But God has not allowed it to happen yet,” said Yudhoyono early on Thursday in response to the failed meeting with Megawati. 

Yudhoyono also said that the failed reconciliation should not result in political instability, as evidenced during the selection of the House leadership. 

“We don’t expect any future political volatility that can disrupt the government from working. It is the people that will bear the consequences,” said Yudhoyono. 
The Democratic Party has repeatedly voiced its neutrality in the House despite the fact that it often accommodates the interests of the Red-and-White Coalition. 

Puan Maharani, however, blamed the collapse of the deal on Yudhoyono, who she alleged closed communication with Megawati by refusing to accept her and the others. 

“We’ve tried, but there was no response from Pak SBY,” she said. 

Source : http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/10/03/deals-with-megawati-sby-refuses-blink.html

Never any plan to announce 

Cabinet members at Priok: 
Jokowi

Ina Parlina, The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | National | Fri, October 24 2014, 10:54 AM

President Joko "Jokowi" Widodo said on Thursday night that he had no plan to announce Cabinet members on Wednesday night at Tanjung Priok Port in North Jakarta.

The statement was made in front of the side gate of the Merdeka Palace on Thursday night at 10:15 p.m. before the media, which had been told by the palace to be on standby near the gate at the time.

According to Jokowi, he wanted to wait for the results of the Corruption Eradication Commission’s (KPK) investigation into people on the new candidate list after he had updated it with eight new candidates to replace eight previous names that the KPK had red-flagged.

"Up until now, the KPK has yet to issue the [new] recommendation," said Jokowi, who was accompanied by Vice President Jusuf Kalla.

Jokowi also questioned why journalists had gathered at the port and later reported that he had canceled the announcement.

"Why were you at the Tanjung Priok yesterday [Wednesday]? Who told you to gather there?" he asked.

He appeared reluctantly to answer journalists when asked why palace media affairs staff had taken them there.

Jokowi only replied with another question: "Did you ask the media affairs unit?"

"We [only] prepared the place; why did [you] say it was canceled? We did no such thing," he said. (nfo)

Source : http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/10/24/never-any-plan-announce-cabinet-members-priok-jokowi.html

Analysis of Direct and Indirect Speech

•       Statement

a.    Direct :

“We don’t expect any future political volatility that can disrupt the government from working. It is the people that will bear the consequences,” said Yudhoyono. 

Indirect :

He said that they didn’t expect any future political volatility that could disrupt the government from working. It is the people that would bear the consequences.

Analysis :

We can change this sentence from direct into indirect speech, in this case we have to change don’t into didn’t and also can into could. Besides, there is change of pronoun for we into they.

b.    Direct :

“We’ve tried, but there was no response from Pak SBY,” she said.

Indirect :

She said that they had tried, but there was no reason from Pak SBY

            Analysis :

            We can change this sentence from direct into indirect speech, there is change of pronoun for we into they. In this case we have to change we’ve tried into they had tried

•  Question

a.    Direct :

“Why were you at the Tanjung Priok yesterday [Wednesday]?” He asked.

Indirect :

He asked why they  were at Tanjung Priok yesterday.

Analysis :

He wants to know why they were at Tanjung Priok yesterday, because the direct question use Wh- question we don’t need to use if/whether.

b.    Direct :

“Who told you to gather there?" he asked.

Indirect :

He asked who told they to gathered there.

Analysis :

Because the direct question uses wh- question we don’t need to use if/whether.

•      Imperative :

a.    Direct :

“Don’t touch my laptop!” she warned me.

Indirect :

She warned me not to touch her laptop.

Analysis :

In the indirect speech we must added “not to” in front of negative imperative.

b.    Direct :

Father advised me : “Wash Your face before you sleep”

Indirect :

Father advised me to wash my face before I sleep.

Name : Mitha Soviani Putri

NPM  : 18611708

Subject : Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Berbantu Komputer 

Tugas Softskill 'Active - Passive voice'

 Fossil Fuels and Global Warming

Fossil fuels and global warming are closely associated with each other. This is because the phenomena of global warming is triggered mainly due to excessive use of fossil fuels.

Coal, oil and natural gas are the three different forms of fossil fuels that are widely used. They are formed by the process of anaerobic decomposition of organic matter under the surface of the earth for millions of years. Large-scale use of fossil fuels started since the Industrial Revolution. Today, these are the most widely used sources of energy available for the use of both personal as well as commercial purposes. Petroleum is used to fuel our vehicles, while coal and natural gas are used to produce electricity for our homes and offices. Statistics show that almost three-fourth of the demands of the energy in the world is fulfilled by fossil fuels.

Carbon Dioxide: A Greenhouse Gas

The presence of high levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere results in an increase in the amount of heat on the surface of Earth. This is because carbon dioxide traps heat obtained from sunlight and does not let it dissipate out of the atmosphere, a process known as the greenhouse effect. Since fossil fuels are hydrocarbons (made from hydrogen and carbon), burning fossil fuels releases a large amount of carbon dioxide into the air. When there is a significant rise in the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air, the amount of heat captured by the carbon dioxide gas also increases. This in turn leads to an overall rise in the surface temperature of the earth, which is also known as global warming.

A Hotter Planet

Evidence obtained from various research studies suggest that since the middle of the nineteenth century, carbon dioxide content in the atmospheric air has increased by at least 25 percent. This is mainly because of excessive use of fossil fuels all across the globe. For this reason, in the last 150 years, the temperature of the earth has already gone up more than 1 degree Fahrenheit. It is estimated that the temperature is going to increase further in the next hundred years. Thus our planet will be much hotter in the next century.

Higher Seas

This can adversely affect the climate of the earth. It is believed that there will be drastic changes in the weather conditions in various parts of the world. The glaciers of the earth will melt at a much faster pace. As a result, the areas which are located near the water bodies like, the coastal regions and the banks of the river, are likely to get submerged under water. Many deltas, islands, thickly populated cities will get covered by water. Droughts and floods will occur more frequently in many inland areas that have extreme weather. Many important cities are situated near the sea, and would also suffer the consequences.

Toxic Gases Causing Acid Rain

Combustion of fossil fuels not only gives out carbon dioxide into the air, it also releases various types of gases like carbon monoxide, methane, nitrous oxide, etc. that cause air pollution. When in air, these gases dissolve in water (in the form of clouds) and get converted into harmful acids like sulfuric acid and carbonic acid. These substances return to the surface of the earth in the form of acid rain, which has a huge impact on the entire environmental conditions. The acid rain causes harm to the soil and plant life and pollutes surface water.

Oil Spills

Crude oil is often transported from one place to another by tankers and ships. Any leakage in these tankers causes oil spills. Such type of accidents have occurred a number of times in the past. This not only leads to water pollution but also poses a serious threat to marine lives.

Thus you can see that the issues of fossil fuels, global warming and climate change are all interwoven with each other. We all have to play a vital role in controlling their ill-effects. If we take some small measures from our side, then we can save our planet from any major disaster. For this, we have to bring down our huge demand for energy. We should reduce energy consumption in our homes and use our vehicles only for traveling short distances. We also have to stop cutting trees and plant more number of saplings regularly. This is because plants use up the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and thus check its level from rising.

Our activities have put the planet at risk, and it's now our responsibility to reverse the trend.

Source : http://www.buzzle.com/articles/fossil-fuels-and-global-warming.html

Active 

•   The acid rain causes harm to the soil and plant life and pollutes surface water.

( This sentence is active active because the sentence is not contained be + past participle.) 

• Crude oil is often transported from one place to another by tankers and ships.

( This sentence is active because because the sentence is not contained be + past participle.) 

3

• global warming and climate change are all interwoven with each other.

                This sentence is active because the sentence is not contained be + past participle. This sentence            is simple present)

•       Large-scale use of fossil fuels started since the Industrial Revolution.

(This sentence is active because the sentence is not contained be + past participle.  This sentence is simple present) 

•      The glaciers of the earth will melt at a much faster pace.

         (This sentence is active  because the sentence is not contained be + past participle.) 

Passive :

•       They are formed by the process of anaerobic decomposition of organic matter under the surface of    the earth for millions of years.

          ( this sentence is passive because the sentence have be + participle, are + formed.)

•       Petroleum is used to fuel our vehicles, while coal and natural gas are used to produce electricity for our homes and offices.

         ( this sentence is passive because the sentence have be + participle, is + used.)

  

•       while coal and natural gas are used to produce electricity for our homes and offices.

          ( this sentence is passive because the sentence have be + participle, are + used.)

•       Statistics show that almost three-fourth of the demands of the energy in the world is fulfilled by fossil fuels.

          ( this sentence is passive because the sentence have be + participle, is + fulfilled.)

•           Many important cities are situated near the sea, and would also suffer the consequences.

          ( this sentence is passive because the sentence have be + participle, are + situated.)

Nama : Mitha Soviani Putri

Kelas : 4SA04

NPM : 18611708

ECONOMICS

Anantya Putri Ardyafani / 10611697 / 3SA04

Komunikasi Bisnis #

Economics and Definitions

English	Indonesia
Economics is the social science that studies the behavior of individuals, households, and organizations (called economic actors, players, or agents), when they manage or use scarce resources, which have alternative uses, to achieve desired ends.	Ekonomi adalah ilmu sosial yang mempelajari perilaku individu, rumah tangga, dan organisasi (disebut pelaku ekonomi, pemain, atau agen), ketika mereka mengelola atau menggunakan sumber daya yang langka, yang memiliki kegunaan alternatif, untuk mencapai tujuan yang diinginkan.
Agents are assumed to act rationally, have multiple desirable ends in sight, limited resources to obtain these ends, a set of stable preferences, a definite overall guiding objective, and the capability of making a choice.	Agen diasumsikan bertindak rasional, memiliki beberapa tujuan yang diinginkan terlihat, sumber daya yang terbatas untuk memperoleh tujuan ini, satu set preferensi yang stabil, tujuan keseluruhan membimbing pasti, dan kemampuan membuat pilihan.
There exists an economic problem, subject to study by economic science, when a decision (choice) has to be made by one or more resource-controlling players to attain the best possible outcome under bounded rational conditions.	Ada masalah ekonomi, tunduk pada belajar dengan ilmu ekonomi, ketika keputusan (pilihan) harus dibuat oleh satu atau lebih sumber daya mengendalikan pemain untuk mencapai hasil terbaik dalam kondisi rasional dibatasi.
In other words, resource-controlling agents must maximize value subject to the constraints imposed by the information the agents have, their cognitive limitations, and the finite amount of time they have to make and execute a decision.	Dengan kata lain, agen sumber daya mengendalikan harus memaksimalkan nilai tunduk pada batasan yang dikenakan oleh informasi agen miliki, keterbatasan kognitif mereka, dan jumlah waktu yang terbatas mereka harus membuat dan melaksanakan keputusan.
Economic science centers on the activities of the economic agents that comprise society.	Ilmu ekonomi berpusat pada kegiatan pelaku ekonomi yang terdiri dari masyarakat.
They are the focus of economic analysis.	Mereka adalah fokus dari analisis ekonomi.
The traditional concern of economics is to gain an understanding of the processes that govern the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an exchange economy.	Perhatian tradisional ekonomi adalah untuk memperoleh pemahaman tentang proses yang mengatur produksi, distribusi dan konsumsi barang dan jasa dalam perekonomian pertukaran.
An agent may have purposes or ends, such as reducing or protecting individuals from crime, on which he or she wants to spend resources.	Seorang agen mungkin memiliki maksud atau tujuan, seperti mengurangi atau melindungi individu dari kejahatan, di mana ia ingin menghabiskan sumber daya.
Economics may study how the agent determines the amount of resources to allocate for this purpose, aside from the traditional concern of economics.	Ekonomi dapat mempelajari bagaimana agen menentukan jumlah sumber daya untuk mengalokasikan untuk tujuan ini, selain dari keprihatinan tradisional ekonomi.
An approach to understanding the processes of production, distribution, and consumption, through the study of agent behavior under scarcity, may go as follows: The continuous interplay (exchange or trade) done by economic actors in all markets sets the prices for all goods and services which, in turn, make the rational managing of scarce resources possible.	Sebuah pendekatan untuk memahami proses produksi, distribusi, dan konsumsi, melalui studi perilaku agen di bawah kelangkaan, mungkin pergi sebagai berikut: Interaksi terus menerus (pertukaran atau perdagangan) yang dilakukan oleh pelaku ekonomi di semua pasar menetapkan harga untuk semua barang dan layanan yang, pada gilirannya, membuat pengelolaan rasional sumber daya yang langka mungkin.
At the same time, the decisions (choices) made by the same actors, while they are pursuing their own interest (their overall guiding objective), determine the level of output (production), consumption, savings, and investment, in an economy, as well as the remuneration (distribution) paid to the owners of labor (in the form of wages), capital (in the form of profits) and land (in the form of rent).	Pada saat yang sama, keputusan (pilihan) yang dibuat oleh aktor yang sama, sementara mereka mengejar kepentingan mereka sendiri (tujuan membimbing mereka secara keseluruhan), menentukan tingkat output (produksi), konsumsi, tabungan, dan investasi, dalam suatu perekonomian, serta remunerasi (distribusi) yang dibayarkan kepada pemilik tenaga kerja (dalam bentuk upah), modal (dalam bentuk keuntungan) dan tanah (dalam bentuk sewa).
Each period, as if they were in a giant feedback system, economic players influence the pricing processes and the economy, and are in turn influenced by them until a steady state (equilibrium) of all variables involved is reached or until an external shock throws the system toward a new equilibrium point.	Setiap periode, seolah-olah mereka berada di sistem umpan balik raksasa, pelaku ekonomi mempengaruhi proses penetapan harga dan ekonomi, dan pada gilirannya dipengaruhi oleh mereka sampai keadaan stabil (equilibrium) dari semua variabel yang terlibat tercapai atau sampai guncangan eksternal melempar sistem menuju titik ekuilibrium baru.
Because of the autonomous actions of rational interacting agents, the economy is a complex adaptive system.	Karena tindakan otonom agen berinteraksi rasional, ekonomi adalah sistem adaptif yang kompleks.
The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία (oikonomia, "management of a household, administration") from οἶκος (oikos, "house") and νόμος (nomos, "custom" or "law"), hence "rules of the house(hold for good management)".	Ekonomi istilah berasal dari οἰκονομία Yunani kuno (oikonomia, "manajemen rumah tangga, administrasi") dari οἶκος (oikos, "rumah") dan νόμος (nomos, "kebiasaan" atau "hukum"), maka "aturan rumah (berlaku untuk manajemen yang baik) ".
'Political economy' was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested "economics" as a shorter term for "economic science" to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences.	'Ekonomi Politik' adalah nama awal untuk subjek, tetapi ekonom pada akhir abad ke-19 menyarankan "ekonomi" sebagai istilah yang lebih pendek untuk "ilmu ekonomi" untuk membangun dirinya sebagai disiplin yang terpisah di luar ilmu politik dan ilmu sosial lainnya.
Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies work.	Ekonomi berfokus pada perilaku dan interaksi agen-agen ekonomi dan bagaimana ekonomi bekerja.
Consistent with this focus, primary textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics.	Konsisten dengan fokus ini, buku teks primer sering membedakan antara mikroekonomi dan makroekonomi.
Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions.	Ekonomi mikro meneliti perilaku unsur-unsur dasar dalam perekonomian, termasuk agen individual dan pasar, interaksi mereka, dan hasil dari interaksi.
Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers.	Setiap agen dapat mencakup, misalnya, rumah tangga, perusahaan, pembeli, dan penjual.
Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production, consumption, savings, and investment) and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources (labor, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies).	Makroekonomi menganalisis seluruh perekonomian (yang berarti produksi agregat, konsumsi, tabungan, dan investasi) dan isu-isu yang mempengaruhi itu, termasuk pengangguran sumber daya (tenaga kerja, modal, dan tanah), inflasi, pertumbuhan ekonomi, dan kebijakan publik yang mengatasi masalah ini (moneter , fiskal, dan kebijakan lainnya).
Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing "what is," and normative economics, advocating "what ought to be"; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioral economics; and between mainstream economics (more "orthodox" and dealing with the "rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus") and heterodox economics (more "radical" and dealing with the "institutions-history-social structure nexus").	Perbedaan luas lainnya dalam ekonomi termasuk yang antara ekonomi positif, menggambarkan "apa yang ada," dan ekonomi normatif, menganjurkan "apa yang seharusnya"; antara teori ekonomi dan ekonomi terapan; antara ekonomi rasional dan perilaku; dan antara ekonomi arus utama (lebih "ortodoks" dan berurusan dengan "rasionalitas-individualisme-equilibrium perhubungan") dan ekonomi heterodoks (lebih "radikal" dan berurusan dengan "lembaga-sejarah sosial struktur perhubungan").
Besides the traditional concern in production, distribution, and consumption in an economy, economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government.	Selain keprihatinan tradisional dalam produksi, distribusi, dan konsumsi dalam perekonomian, analisis ekonomi dapat diterapkan seluruh masyarakat, seperti dalam bisnis, keuangan, kesehatan, dan pemerintah.
Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime, education, the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, and science; by considering the economic aspects of these subjects.	Analisis ekonomi juga dapat diterapkan pada mata pelajaran yang beragam seperti kejahatan, pendidikan, keluarga, hukum, politik, agama, lembaga sosial, perang, dan ilmu pengetahuan; dengan mempertimbangkan aspek ekonomi dari mata pelajaran ini.
Education, for example, requires time, effort, and expenses, plus the foregone income and experience, yet these losses can be weighted against future benefits education may bring to the agent or the economy.	Pendidikan, misalnya, membutuhkan waktu, tenaga, dan biaya, ditambah pendapatan terdahulu dan pengalaman, namun kerugian ini dapat tertimbang terhadap pendidikan manfaat masa depan dapat membawa ke agen atau ekonomi.
At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism. There are a variety of modern definitions of economics.	Pada pergantian abad ke-21, domain memperluas ekonomi dalam ilmu sosial telah digambarkan sebagai imperialisme ekonomi. Ada berbagai definisi modern ekonomi.
Some of the differences may reflect evolving views of the subject or different views among economists.	Beberapa perbedaan mungkin mencerminkan berkembang dilihat dari pandangan subjek atau berbeda di kalangan ekonom.
Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1776) defined what was then called political economy as "an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in particular as: a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator [with the twofold objectives of providing] a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... [and] to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue for the publick services.	Filsuf Skotlandia Adam Smith (1776) mendefinisikan apa yang kemudian disebut ekonomi politik sebagai "penyelidikan sifat dan penyebab dari kekayaan bangsa-bangsa", khususnya sebagai: cabang dari ilmu seorang negarawan atau legislator [dengan tujuan ganda memberikan] pendapatan berlimpah atau subsistensi bagi orang-orang ... [dan] untuk memasok negara persemakmuran atau dengan pendapatan untuk layanan di muka umum.
J.-B. Say (1803), distinguishing the subject from its public-policy uses, defines it as the science of production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.	J.-B. Katakanlah (1803), membedakan subjek dari penggunaan publik-kebijakan, mendefinisikan sebagai ilmu produksi, distribusi, dan konsumsi kekayaan.
On the satirical side, Thomas Carlyle (1849) coined "the dismal science" as an epithet for classical economics, in this context, commonly linked to the pessimistic analysis of Malthus (1798).	Di sisi satir, Thomas Carlyle (1849) diciptakan "ilmu suram" sebagai julukan untuk ekonomi klasik, dalam konteks ini, sering dikaitkan dengan analisis pesimis dari Malthus (1798).
John Stuart Mill (1844) defines the subject in a social context as: The science which traces the laws of such of the phenomena of society as arise from the combined operations of mankind for the production of wealth, in so far as those phenomena are not modified by the pursuit of any other object. Alfred Marshall provides a still widely cited definition in his textbook Principles of Economics (1890) that extends analysis beyond wealth and from the societal to the microeconomic level: Economics is a study of man in the ordinary business of life. It enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it is on the one side, the study of wealth and on the other and more important side, a part of the study of man.	John Stuart Mill (1844) mendefinisikan subjek dalam konteks sosial sebagai: Ilmu yang menelusuri hukum seperti fenomena masyarakat sebagai timbul dari operasi gabungan umat manusia untuk produksi kekayaan, sejauh fenomena tidak dimodifikasi oleh mengejar benda lainnya. Alfred Marshall memberikan definisi masih banyak dikutip dalam buku teks-nya Prinsip Ekonomi (1890) yang memperluas analisis melampaui kekayaan dan dari masyarakat ke tingkat ekonomi mikro: Ekonomi adalah studi tentang manusia dalam kehidupan bisnis biasa. Ini bertanya bagaimana dia mendapat penghasilan dan bagaimana ia menggunakannya. Dengan demikian, di satu sisi, studi tentang kekayaan dan di sisi lain dan yang lebih penting, bagian dari studi manusia.
Lionel Robbins (1932) developed implications of what has been termed "[p]erhaps the most commonly accepted current definition of the subject": Economics is a science which studies human behaviour as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.	Lionel Robbins (1932) mengembangkan implikasi dari apa yang telah disebut "[p] erhaps definisi saat ini paling umum diterima subjek": Ekonomi adalah ilmu yang mempelajari perilaku manusia sebagai hubungan antara tujuan dan sarana langka yang memiliki kegunaan alternatif.
Robbins describes the definition as not classificatory in "pick[ing] out certain kinds of behaviour" but rather analytical in "focus[ing] attention on a particular aspect of behaviour, the form imposed by the influence of scarcity."	Robbins menjelaskan definisi tidak klasifikasi dalam "memilih [ing] keluar jenis perilaku tertentu" melainkan analitis dalam "fokus [ing] perhatian pada aspek tertentu dari perilaku, bentuk yang dikenakan oleh pengaruh kelangkaan."
He affirmed that previous economist have usually centered their studies on the analysis of wealth: how wealth is created (production), distributed, and consumed; and how wealth can grow.	Ia menegaskan bahwa ekonom sebelumnya biasanya berpusat studi mereka pada analisis kekayaan: bagaimana kekayaan diciptakan (produksi), didistribusikan, dan dikonsumsi; dan bagaimana kekayaan dapat tumbuh.
But he said that economics can be used to study other things, such as war, that are outside its usual focus.	Namun dia mengatakan bahwa ekonomi dapat digunakan untuk mempelajari hal-hal lain, seperti perang, yang berada di luar fokus biasa.
This is because war has as the goal wining it (as a sought after end), generates both cost and benefits; and, resources (human life and other costs) are used to attain the goal.	Hal ini karena perang memiliki sebagai tujuan wining itu (sebagai dicari akhir), menghasilkan biaya dan manfaat; dan, sumber daya (kehidupan manusia dan biaya lainnya) yang digunakan untuk mencapai tujuan.
If the war is not winnable or if the expected costs outweigh the benefits, the deciding actors (assuming they are rational) may never go to war (a decision) but rather explore other alternatives.	Jika perang tidak dapat dimenangkan atau jika biaya yang diharapkan lebih besar daripada manfaat, aktor memutuskan (dengan asumsi mereka rasional) mungkin tidak pernah pergi berperang (keputusan) melainkan mengeksplorasi alternatif lainnya.
We cannot define economics as the science that study wealth, war, crime, education, and any other field economic analysis can be applied to; but, as the science that study a particular common aspect of each of those subjects (they all use scarce resources to attain a sought after end).	Kita tidak bisa mendefinisikan ekonomi sebagai ilmu yang mempelajari kekayaan, perang, kejahatan, pendidikan, dan bidang lain analisis ekonomi dapat diterapkan; tetapi, sebagai ilmu yang mempelajari aspek umum tertentu dari masing-masing mata pelajaran (mereka semua menggunakan sumber daya yang langka untuk mencapai dicari akhir).
Some subsequent comments criticized the definition as overly broad in failing to limit its subject matter to analysis of markets.	Beberapa komentar selanjutnya mengkritik definisi sebagai terlalu luas dalam gagal untuk membatasi materi pelajaran untuk analisis pasar.
From the 1960s, however, such comments abated as the economic theory of maximizing behavior and rational-choice modeling expanded the domain of the subject to areas previously treated in other fields.	Dari tahun 1960-an, bagaimanapun, komentar seperti mereda sebagai teori ekonomi memaksimalkan perilaku dan pemodelan rasional-pilihan memperluas domain subjek ke daerah-daerah yang sebelumnya dirawat di bidang lain.
There are other criticisms as well, such as in scarcity not accounting for the macroeconomics of high unemployment.	Ada kritik lain juga, seperti kelangkaan tidak akuntansi untuk ekonomi makro pengangguran tinggi.
Gary Becker, a contributor to the expansion of economics into new areas, describes the approach he favors as "combin[ing the] assumptions of maximizing behavior, stable preferences, and market equilibrium, used relentlessly and unflinchingly."	Gary Becker, kontributor untuk ekspansi ekonomi ke daerah baru, menggambarkan pendekatan yang nikmat sebagai "combin [ing] asumsi perilaku memaksimalkan, preferensi yang stabil, dan keseimbangan pasar, digunakan tanpa henti dan tanpa berkedip."
One commentary characterizes the remark as making economics an approach rather than a subject matter but with great specificity as to the "choice process and the type of social interaction that [such] analysis involves."	Satu komentar mencirikan pernyataan itu sebagai membuat ekonomi pendekatan daripada materi pelajaran tetapi dengan kekhususan besar untuk "proses pilihan dan jenis interaksi sosial yang [seperti] analisis melibatkan."
The same source reviews a range of definitions included in principles of economics textbooks and concludes that the lack of agreement need not affect the subject-matter that the texts treat.	Sumber yang sama ulasan berbagai definisi yang termasuk dalam prinsip-prinsip buku teks ekonomi dan menyimpulkan bahwa kurangnya kesepakatan tidak perlu mempengaruhi subyek bahwa teks mengobati.
Among economists more generally, it argues that a particular definition presented may reflect the direction toward which the author believes economics is evolving, or should evolve.	Di antara ekonom lebih umum, ia berargumen bahwa definisi tertentu yang disajikan mungkin mencerminkan arah ke arah mana penulis percaya ekonomi berkembang, atau harus berkembang.

Dini Alamanda / 12611153 / 3SA04

Komunikasi Bisnis #

English	Indonesia
Microeconomics
Microeconomics is the branch of economics that studies the behavior of consumers and companies as well as the determination of market prices and the quantity of factor inputs, goods, and services are bought and sold.	Ilmu ekonomi mikro adalah cabang dari ilmu ekonomi yang mempelajari perilaku konsumen dan perusahaan serta penentuan harga-harga pasar dan kuantitas faktor input, barang, dan jasa yang diperjualbelikan.
Microeconomics examines how entities, forming a market structure, interact within a market to create a market system. These entities include private and public players with various classifications, typically operating under scarcity of tradeable units and government regulation. The item traded may be a tangible product such as apples or a service such as repair services, legal counsel, or entertainment.	Ekonomi mikro meneliti bagaimana entitas, membentuk struktur pasar, berinteraksi dalam pasar untuk menciptakan sebuah sistem pasar. Entitas ini dilengkapi pemutar swasta dan publik dengan berbagai klasifikasi, biasanya beroperasi di bawah kelangkaan unit diperdagangkan dan peraturan pemerintah. Item diperdagangkan dapat menjadi produk nyata seperti apel atau layanan seperti layanan perbaikan, penasihat hukum, atau hiburan.
Microeconomics studies individual markets by simplifying the economic system by assuming that activity in the market being analysed does not affect other markets. This method of analysis is known as partial-equilibrium analysis (supply and demand). This method aggregates (the sum of all activity) in only one market. General-equilibrium theory studies various markets and their behaviour. It aggregates (the sum of all activity) across all markets. This method studies both changes in markets and their interactions leading towards equilibrium.	Ekonomi mikro mempelajari pasar individu dengan menyederhanakan sistem ekonomi dengan asumsi bahwa aktivitas di pasar yang dianalisis tidak mempengaruhi pasar lain. Metode analisis ini dikenal sebagai analisis parsial-equilibrium (supply dan demand). Metode ini agregat (jumlah semua kegiatan) hanya dalam satu pasar. Teori umum-ekuilibrium mempelajari berbagai pasar dan perilaku mereka. Ini agregat (jumlah semua aktivitas) di semua pasar. Metode ini mempelajari kedua perubahan pasar dan interaksi mereka mengarah pada keseimbangan.
Production, cost, and efficiency
In microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an economic process that uses inputs to create a commodity or a service for exchange or direct use. Production is a flow and thus a rate of output per period of time. Distinctions include such production alternatives as for consumption (food, haircuts, etc.) vs. investment goods (new tractors, buildings, roads, etc.), public goods (national defense, small-pox vaccinations, etc.) or private goods (new computers, bananas, etc.), and "guns" vs. "butter".	Dalam ekonomi mikro, produksi adalah konversi dari input menjadi output. Ini adalah proses ekonomi yang menggunakan input untuk membuat barang atau jasa untuk pertukaran atau menggunakan langsung. Produksi adalah aliran dan dengan demikian tingkat output per periode waktu. Perbedaan meliputi alternatif produksi seperti untuk konsumsi (makanan, potongan rambut, dll) vs barang-barang investasi (traktor baru, bangunan, jalan, dll), barang publik (pertahanan nasional, vaksinasi cacar, dll) atau barang pribadi ( komputer baru, pisang, dll), dan “senjata” vs “mentega”.
Opportunity cost refers to the economic cost of production: the value of the next best opportunity foregone. Choices must be made between desirable yet mutually exclusive actions. It has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice.". The opportunity cost of an activity is an element in ensuring that scarce resources are used efficiently, such that the cost is weighed against the value of that activity in deciding on more or less of it. Opportunity costs are not restricted to monetary or financial costs but could be measured by the real cost of output forgone, leisure, or anything else that provides the alternative benefit (utility).	Biaya peluang mengacu pada biaya ekonomi produksi: nilai terbaik berikutnya kesempatan terdahulu. Pilihan harus dibuat antara tindakan yang diinginkan belum saling eksklusif. Ini telah digambarkan sebagai mengungkapkan "hubungan dasar antara kelangkaan dan pilihan.". Biaya kesempatan dari suatu kegiatan merupakan unsur dalam memastikan bahwa sumber daya yang langka digunakan secara efisien, sehingga biaya ditimbang terhadap nilai kegiatan yang dalam memutuskan lebih atau kurang dari itu. Biaya peluang tidak terbatas pada biaya moneter atau keuangan, tetapi dapat diukur dengan biaya riil output yang hilang, rekreasi, atau apa pun yang memberikan manfaat alternatif (utilitas).
Economic efficiency describes how well a system generates desired output with a given set of inputs and available technology. Efficiency is improved if more output is generated without changing inputs, or in other words, the amount of "waste" is reduced. A widely accepted general standard is Pareto efficiency, which is reached when no further change can make someone better off without making someone else worse off.	Efisiensi ekonomi menggambarkan seberapa baik sistem menghasilkan output yang diinginkan dengan himpunan input dan teknologi yang tersedia. Efisiensi meningkat jika lebih banyak output yang dihasilkan tanpa input berubah, atau dengan kata lain, jumlah dari “keburukan” berkurang. Sebuah standar umum yang diterima secara luas adalah efisiensi Pareto, yang tercapai bila tidak ada perubahan lebih lanjut dapat membuat seseorang lebih baik tanpa membuat orang lain lebih buruk.
Specialization is considered key to economic efficiency based on theoretical and empirical considerations. Different individuals or nations may have different real opportunity costs of production, say from differences in stocks of human capital per worker or capital/labour ratios. According to theory, this may give a comparative advantage in production of goods that make more intensive use of the relatively more abundant, thus relatively cheaper, input.	Spesialisasi adalah kunci untuk efisiensi ekonomi berdasarkan pertimbangan teoritis dan empiris dipertimbangkan. Individu yang berbeda atau negara mungkin memiliki biaya kesempatan nyata berbeda dari produksi, mengatakan dari perbedaan saham modal manusia per pekerja atau rasio modal / tenaga kerja. Menurut teori, hal ini dapat memberikan keunggulan komparatif dalam produksi barang yang menggunakan lebih intensif yang relatif lebih banyak, sehingga relatif lebih murah, masukan.
The general theory of specialization applies to trade among individuals, farms, manufacturers, service providers, and economies. Among each of these production systems, there may be a corresponding division of labour with different work groups specializing, or correspondingly different types of capital equipment and differentiated land uses.	Teori umum spesialisasi berlaku untuk perdagangan antar individu, peternakan, produsen, penyedia layanan, dan ekonomi. Di antara masing-masing sistem produksi ini, mungkin ada pembagian kerja yang sesuai dengan kelompok-kelompok kerja yang berbeda yang mengkhususkan diri, atau jenis Sejalan berbeda peralatan modal dan penggunaan lahan dibedakan.
An example that combines features above is a country that specializes in the production of high-tech knowledge products, as developed countries do, and trades with developing nations for goods produced in factories where labour is relatively cheap and plentiful, resulting in different in opportunity costs of production. More total output and utility thereby results from specializing in production and trading than if each country produced its own high-tech and low-tech products.	Sebuah contoh yang menggabungkan fitur di atas adalah negara yang mengkhususkan diri dalam produksi produk pengetahuan teknologi tinggi, seperti negara-negara maju melakukan, dan perdagangan dengan negara-negara berkembang untuk barang yang diproduksi di pabrik-pabrik di mana tenaga kerja relatif murah dan berlimpah, sehingga berbeda dalam biaya peluang produksi. Total output lebih dan utilitas sehingga hasil dari mengkhususkan diri dalam produksi dan perdagangan daripada jika masing-masing negara diproduksi berteknologi tinggi dan berteknologi rendah produk sendiri.
Supply and demand
The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase (that is, right-shift) in demand from D1 to D2 along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).	Model permintaan dan penawaran menjelaskan bagaimana harga beragam sebagai hasil dari keseimbangan antara ketersediaan produk pada tiap harga (penawaran) dengan kebijakan distribusi dan keinginan dari mereka dengan kekuatan pembelian pada tiap harga (permintaan). Grafik ini memperlihatkan sebuah pergeseran ke kanan dalam permintaan dari D1 ke D2 bersama dengan peningkatan harga dan jumlah yang diperlukan untuk mencapai sebuah titik keseimbangan (equibilirium) dalam kurva penawaran (S).
Prices and quantities have been described as the most directly observable attributes of goods produced and exchanged in a market economy. The theory of supply and demand is an organizing principle for explaining how prices coordinate the amounts produced and consumed. In microeconomics, it applies to price and output determination for a market with perfect competition, which includes the condition of no buyers or sellers large enough to have price-setting power.	Harga dan kuantitas telah digambarkan sebagai atribut yang paling langsung diamati barang yang diproduksi dan dipertukarkan dalam ekonomi pasar. Teori penawaran dan permintaan merupakan prinsip pengorganisasian untuk menjelaskan bagaimana harga mengkoordinasikan jumlah yang diproduksi dan dikonsumsi. Dalam ekonomi mikro, itu berlaku untuk penentuan harga dan output untuk pasar dengan persaingan sempurna, yang meliputi kondisi tidak ada pembeli atau penjual yang cukup besar untuk memiliki kekuatan penetapan harga.
Marginalist theory,  describes the consumers as attempting to reach most-preferred positions, subject to income and wealth constraints while producers attempt to maximize profits subject to their own constraints, including demand for goods produced, technology, and the price of inputs. For the consumer, that point comes where marginal utility of a good, net of price, reaches zero, leaving no net gain from further consumption increases. Analogously, the producer compares marginal revenue (identical to price for the perfect competitor) against the marginal cost of a good, with marginal profit the difference. At the point where marginal profit reaches zero, further increases in production of the good stop. For movement to market equilibrium and for changes in equilibrium, price and quantity also change "at the margin": more-or-less of something, rather than necessarily all-or-nothing.	Teori Marginalist, menggambarkan konsumen sebagai berusaha untuk mencapai posisi yang paling disukai-, tunduk pada pendapatan dan kekayaan kendala sementara produsen berusaha untuk memaksimalkan keuntungan tunduk pada batasan mereka sendiri, termasuk permintaan untuk barang yang diproduksi, teknologi, dan harga input . Untuk konsumen, saat itu datang di mana utilitas marjinal yang baik, bersih harga, mencapai nol, tanpa meninggalkan keuntungan bersih dari kenaikan konsumsi lebih lanjut. Secara analog, produser membandingkan pendapatan marjinal (identik dengan harga untuk pesaing sempurna) terhadap biaya marjinal yang baik, dengan keuntungan marginal perbedaan. Pada titik di mana keuntungan marginal mencapai nol, kenaikan lebih lanjut dalam produksi berhenti baik. Untuk gerakan untuk keseimbangan pasar dan perubahan dalam kesetimbangan, harga dan kuantitas juga berubah “margin”: lebih-atau-kurang sesuatu, daripada tentu semua atau tidak sama sekali.
Demand-and-supply analysis is used to explain the behavior of perfectly competitive markets, but as a standard of comparison it can be extended to any type of market. It can also be generalized to explain variables across the economy, for example, total output (estimated as real GDP) and the general price level, as studied in macroeconomics. Tracing the qualitative and quantitative effects of variables that change supply and demand, whether in the short or long run, is a standard exercise in applied economics. Economic theory may also specify conditions such that supply and demand through the market is an efficient mechanism for allocating resources.	Analisis permintaan dan pasokan yang digunakan untuk menjelaskan perilaku pasar persaingan sempurna, tetapi sebagai standar perbandingan dapat diperpanjang untuk semua jenis pasar. Hal ini juga dapat digeneralisasi untuk menjelaskan variabel di seluruh ekonomi, misalnya, total output (diperkirakan sebagai PDB riil) dan tingkat harga umum, seperti yang dipelajari dalam makroekonomi. Menelusuri efek kualitatif dan kuantitatif dari variabel yang mengubah penawaran dan permintaan, baik dalam jangka pendek atau panjang, adalah latihan standar dalam ekonomi terapan. Teori ekonomi juga dapat menentukan kondisi seperti penawaran dan permintaan melalui pasar adalah mekanisme yang efisien untuk mengalokasikan sumber daya.
Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics examines the economy as a whole to explain broad aggregates and their interactions "top down", that is, using a simplified form of general-equilibrium theory. Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components. It also studies effects of monetary policy and fiscal policy.	Makroekonomi meneliti perekonomian secara keseluruhan untuk menjelaskan agregat luas dan “interaksi mereka” yaitu, dengan menggunakan bentuk sederhana teori umum-ekuilibrium. Agregat tersebut termasuk pendapatan nasional dan output, tingkat pengangguran, dan inflasi harga dan subaggregates seperti total konsumsi dan pengeluaran investasi dan komponen mereka. Hal ini juga mempelajari dampak kebijakan moneter dan kebijakan fiskal.
Since at least the 1960s, macroeconomics has been characterized by further integration as to micro-based modeling of sectors, including rationality of players, efficient use of market information, and imperfect competition. This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.	Setidaknya sejak tahun 1960, makroekonomi telah ditandai dengan integrasi lebih lanjut untuk pemodelan mikro berbasis sektor, termasuk rasionalitas pemain, efisiensi penggunaan informasi pasar, dan persaingan tidak sempurna. Hal ini ditujukan kekhawatiran lama tentang perkembangan yang tidak konsisten dari subjek yang sama.
Macroeconomic analysis also considers factors affecting the long-term level and growth of national income. Such factors include capital accumulation, technological change and labour force growth.	Analisis makroekonomi juga mempertimbangkan faktor yang mempengaruhi tingkat jangka panjang dan pertumbuhan pendapatan nasional. Faktor-faktor tersebut meliputi akumulasi modal, perubahan teknologi dan pertumbuhan angkatan kerja.
Growth
Growth economics studies factors that explain economic growth – the increase in output per capita of a country over a long period of time. The same factors are used to explain differences in the level of output per capita between countries, in particular why some countries grow faster than others, and whether countries converge at the same rates of growth.	Pertumbuhan ekonomi mempelajari faktor-faktor yang menjelaskan pertumbuhan ekonomi - peningkatan output per kapita suatu negara selama periode waktu yang panjang. Faktor yang sama yang digunakan untuk menjelaskan perbedaan dalam tingkat output per kapita antar negara, khususnya mengapa beberapa negara tumbuh lebih cepat dari yang lain, dan apakah negara bertemu pada tingkat yang sama pertumbuhan.
Much-studied factors include the rate of investment, population growth, and technological change. These are represented in theoretical and empirical forms (as in the neoclassical and endogenous growth models) and in growth accounting.	Banyak faktor-dipelajari meliputi tingkat investasi, pertumbuhan penduduk, dan perubahan teknologi. Ini direpresentasikan dalam bentuk teoritis dan empiris (seperti dalam model pertumbuhan neoklasik dan endogen) dan dalam akuntansi pertumbuhan.
Inflation and monetary policy
Money is a means of final payment for goods in most price system economies and the unit of account in which prices are typically stated. A very apt statement by Professor Walker, a well-known economist is that, " Money is what money does" Money has a general acceptability, a relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elastic in supply and survives with mass public confidence. It includes currency held by the nonbank public and checkable deposits. It has been described as a social convention, like language, useful to one largely because it is useful to others.	Uang adalah alat pembayaran untuk barang-barang akhir di sebagian besar perekonomian sistem harga dan unit of account di mana harga biasanya dinyatakan. Sebuah pernyataan yang sangat tepat oleh Profesor Walker, seorang ekonom terkenal adalah bahwa, “Uang adalah uang”; Uang memiliki penerimaan umum, konsistensi relatif dalam nilai, dibagi, daya tahan, portabilitas, elastis pasokan dan bertahan dengan keyakinan umum massal . Ini termasuk mata uang yang dimiliki oleh simpanan masyarakat dan checkable nonbank. Ini telah digambarkan sebagai konvensi sosial, seperti bahasa, berguna untuk satu terutama karena hal ini berguna untuk orang lain.
As a medium of exchange, money facilitates trade. It is essentially a measure of value and more importantly, a store of value being a basis for credit creation. Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange). Given a diverse array of produced goods and specialized producers, barter may entail a hard-to-locate double coincidence of wants as to what is exchanged, say apples and a book. Money can reduce the transaction cost of exchange because of its ready acceptability. Then it is less costly for the seller to accept money in exchange, rather than what the buyer produces.	Sebagai alat tukar, uang memfasilitasi perdagangan. Ini pada dasarnya adalah sebuah ukuran nilai dan yang lebih penting, penyimpan nilai menjadi dasar penciptaan kredit. Fungsi ekonomi dapat dibandingkan dengan barter (pertukaran non-moneter). Mengingat beragam barang yang diproduksi dan produsen khusus, barter mungkin memerlukan kebetulan ganda sulit menemukan dari keinginan seperti apa yang dipertukarkan, seperti apel dan buku. Uang dapat mengurangi biaya transaksi pertukaran karena penerimaan siap nya. Maka itu adalah lebih murah bagi penjual untuk menerima uang dalam pertukaran, daripada apa yang menghasilkan pembeli.
At the level of an economy, theory and evidence are consistent with a positive relationship running from the total money supply to the nominal value of total output and to the general price level. For this reason, management of the money supply is a key aspect of monetary policy.	Pada tingkat ekonomi, teori dan bukti konsisten dengan hubungan yang positif berjalan dari total uang beredar dengan nilai nominal total output dan tingkat harga umum. Untuk alasan ini, pengelolaan uang beredar adalah aspek kunci dari kebijakan moneter.

Mitha Soviani Putri / 18611708 / 3SA04

Komunikasi Bisnis #

SLT	TLT
International economics	Ekonomi Internasional
International trade studies determinants of goods-and-services flows across international boundaries.	Studi Perdagangan Internasional  merupakan faktor penentu barang - dan – jasa mengalir melintasi batas internasional .
It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.	Hal ini juga menyangkut ukuran dand istribusi keuntungan dari perdagangan .
Policy applications include estimating the effects of changing tariff rates and trade quotas.	Aplikasi kebijakan termasuk memperkirakan efek dari perubahan tingkat tarif dan kuota perdagangan .
International finance is a macroeconomic field which examines the flow of capital across international borders, and the effects of these movements on exchange rates.	Keuangan internasion aladalah bidang makroekonomi yang meneliti aliran modal lintas batas internasional ,dan efek dari gerakan tersebut pada nilai tukar .
Increased trade in goods, services and capital between countries is a major effect of contemporary globalization	Peningkatan perdagangan barang ,jasa dan modal antar Negara adalah efek utama globalisasi kontemporer .
The distinct field of development economics examines economic aspects of the economic development process in relatively low-income countries focusing on structural change, poverty, and economic growth.	Bidang yang berbeda dari ekonomi pembangunan meneliti aspek-aspek ekonomi dari proses pembangunan ekonomi di negara-negara berpenghasilan relative rendah berfokus pada perubahan struktural ,kemiskinan , dan pertumbuhan ekonomi .
Approaches in development economics frequently incorporate social and political factors.	Pendekatan dalam ekonomi pembangunan sering memasukkan faktor-faktor social dan politik .
Economic systems is the branch of economics that studies the methods and institutions by which societies determine the ownership, direction, and allocation of economic resources.	Sistem ekonomi adalah cabang dari ilmu ekonomi yang mempelajari metode dan institusi dimana masyaraka tmenentukan kepemilikan ,arah , dana lokasi sumberdaya ekonomi .
An economic system of a society is the unit of analysis.	Sebuah system ekonomi masyarakat adalah unit analisis .
Among contemporary systems at different ends of the organizational spectrum are socialist systems and capitalist systems, in which most production occurs in respectively state-run and private enterprises.	Di antara sistemkon temporer di ujung yang berbeda dari spectrum organisasi adalah system sosialis dan sistemkapitalis , di mana sebagian besar produksi terjadi pada masing-masing dikelola Negara dan perusahaan swasta .
In between are mixed economies.	Di antara adalah ekonomi campuran .
A common element is the interaction of economic and political influences, broadly described as political economy.	Unsur umum adalah interaksi pengaruh ekonomi dan politik ,secara luas digambarkan sebagai ekonomi politik .
Comparative economic systems studies the relative performance and behavior of different economies or systems.	Sistem ekonomi komparatif mempelajari kinerja relative dan perilaku ekonomi atau sistem yang berbeda.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or Economic Growth	Produk Domestik Bruto (PDB) atau Pertumbuhan Ekonomi
Gross Domestic product means the total value of goods produced and services provided in a country in a year.	Produk Domestik Bruto berarti total nilai barang yang diproduksi dan layanan yang disediakan di suatu Negara dalam satu tahun.
GDP is customarily reported on annual basis.	GDP biasanya dilaporkan secara tahunan.
Practice	Praktek
Contemporary economics uses mathematics. Economists draw on the tools of calculus, linear algebra, statistics, game theory, and computer science.	Ekonomi kontemporer menggunakan matematika. Ekonom menarik pada alat kalkulus, aljabar linear, statistik, teoripermainan, dan ilmu komputer.
Professional economists are expected to be familiar with these tools, while a minority specialize in econometrics and mathematical methods.	Ekonom professional diharapkan untuk menjadi akrab dengan alat ini, sementara minoritas mengkhususkan diri dalam ekonom etridanmetode matematika.
Theory	Teori
Mainstream economic theory relies upon a priori quantitative economic models, which employ a variety of concepts.	Teoriekonomi Mainstream bergantung pada model ekonomi apriorikuantitatif , yang menggunakan berbagai konsep .
Teoriekonomi Mainstream bergantungpada model ekonomiapriorikuantitatif , yang menggunakanberbagaikonsep .	Teori biasanya berlangsung dengan asumsi ceteris paribus , yang berarti memegang variable penjelas konstan selain yang sedang dipertimbangkan .
When creating theories, the objective is to find ones which are at least as simple in information requirements, more precise in predictions, and more fruitful n generating additional research than prior theories.	Ketika membuat teori ,tujuannya adalah untuk menemukan orang-orang yang setidaknya sama sederhana dalam kebutuhan informasi , lebih tepat dalam prediksi , dan lebih bermanfaat dalam menghasilkan penelitian tambahan dar iteori-teori sebelumnya.
In microeconomics, principal concepts include supply and demand, marginalism, rational choice theory, opportunity cost, budget constraints, utility, and the theory of the firm.	Dalam ekonomi mikro ,konsep utama termasukp enawaran dan permintaan , batasan-batasan , teori pilihan rasional , biaya kesempatan , keterbatas ananggaran , utilitas , dan teori perusahaan .
Early macroeconomic models focused on modeling the relationships between aggregate variables, but as the relationships appeared to change over time macroeconomists, including new Keynesians, reformulated their models in microfoundations.	Model makro ekonomi awal difokuskan pada pemodelan hubungan antara varia belagregat ,tetapi sebagai hubungan tampaknya berubah dari waktu makroekonomi , termasuk Keynesian baru , dirumuskan model mereka di dasar mikro .
The aforementioned microeconomic concepts play a major part in macroeconomic models – for instance, in monetary theory, the quantity theory of money predicts that increases in the money supply increase inflation, and inflation is assumed to be influenced by rational expectations.	Konsep-konsep ekonomi mikro tersebut memainkan bagian penting dalam model ekonomimakro - misalnya ,dalam teori moneter , teori kuantitas uang memprediksi bahwa kenaikan jumlah uangberedar meningkatkan inflasi , dan inflasi diasumsikan dipengaruhi oleh ekspektasirasional .
In development economics, slower growth in developed nations has been sometimes predicted because of the declining marginal returns of investment and capital, and this has been observed in the Four Asian Tigers.	Dalam ilmu ekonomi pembangunan, pertumbuhan lebih lambat di Negara maju telah kadang-kadang diperkirakan karena menurunnya keuntungan marginal investasi dan modal ,dan ini telah diamati di Empat Macan Asia .
Sometimes an economic hypothesis is only qualitative, not quantitative.	Kadang-kadang hipotesis ekonomi hanya kualitatif  ,bukan kuantitatif .
Expositions of economic reasoning often use two-dimensional graphs to illustrate theoretical relationships.	Eksposisi penalaran ekonomi sering menggunakan grafik dua dimensi untuk menggambarkan hubungan teoritis .
At a higher level of generality, Paul Samuelson's treatise Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) used mathematical methods to represent the theory, particularly as to maximizing behavioral relations of agents reaching equilibrium.	Pada tingkat yang lebih tinggi umum , Paul Samuelson risalah Yayasan AnalisisEkonomi ( 1947) menggunakan metode matematika untuk mewakili teori , khususnya untuk memaksimalkan hubungan perilaku agen mencapai keseimbangan .
The book focused on examining the class of statements called operationally meaningful theorems in economics, which are theorems that can conceivably be refuted by empirical data.	Buku ini berfokus pada pemeriksaan kelas laporan yang disebu t teorema operasional berarti di bidang ekonomi , yang merupakan teorema yang dapat dibayangkan dibantah oleh data empiris.
Empirical investigation	Investigasi Empiris
Economic theories are frequently tested empirically, largely through the use of econometrics using economic data.	Teori ekonomi sering diuji secara empiris ,terutama melalui penggunaan ekonometri menggunakan data ekonomi .
The controlled experiments common to the physical sciences are difficult and uncommon in economics,and instead broad data is observationally studied; this type of testing is typically regarded as less rigorous than controlled experimentation, and the conclusions typically more tentative.	Eksperimen yang terkontrol umum untuk ilmu-ilmu fisik sulit dan jarang di bidang ekonomi ,dan data, bukan luas adalah observasional dipelajari ; jenis pengujian biasanya dianggap kurang ketat dari pada eksperimen terkontrol , dan kesimpulan biasanya lebih tentatif .
However, the field of experimental economics is growing, and increasing use is being made of natural experiments.	Namun, bidang ekonomi eksperimental berkembang ,dan meningkatnya penggunaan sedang terbuat dari eksperimen alami .
Statistical methods such as regression analysis are common.	Metode statistic seperti analisis regresi yang umum .
Practitioners use such methods to estimate the size, economic significance, and statistical significance ("signal strength") of the hypothesized relation(s) and to adjust for noise from other variables.	Praktisi menggunakan metode tersebut untuk memperkirakan ukuran ,signifikansi ekonomi , dan signifikansi statistik ( " kekuatansinyal " ) dari hubungan hipotesis ( s ) dan untuk menyesuaikan suara dari variabel lain .
By such means, a hypothesis may gain acceptance, although in a probabilistic, rather than certain, sense.	Dengan cara seperti itu, hipotesis mungkin mendapatkan penerimaan ,meskipun dalam arti probabilistik , bukan tertentu .
Acceptance is dependent upon the falsifiable hypothesis surviving tests.	Penerimaan tergantung pada hipotesis difalsifikasi bertahan tes .
Use of commonly accepted methods need not produce a final conclusion or even a consensus on a particular question, given different tests, data sets, and prior beliefs.	Penggunaan metode yang umum diterima tidak perlu menghasilkan kesimpulan akhir atau bahkan consensus pada pertanyaan tertentu ,diberikan tes yang berbeda , data set , dan keyakinan sebelumnya .
Criticism based on professional standards and non-replicability of results serve as further checks against bias, errors, and over-generalization,[although much economic research has been accused of being non-replicable, and prestigious journals have been accused of not facilitating replication through the provision of the code and data.	Kritik berdasarkan standa rprofesional dan non – peniruan dari hasil pemeriksaan berfungsi sebagai lebih lanjut terhadap bias, kesalahan ,dan over- generalisasi , [ meskipun penelitian ekonomi banyak yang telah dituduh non - direplikasi , dan jurnal bergengs itelah dituduh tidak memfasilitasi replikasi melalui  penyediaan kode dan data.
Like theories, uses of test statistics are themselves open to critical analysis, although critical commentary on papers in economics in prestigious journals such as the American Economic Review has declined precipitously in the past 40 years.	Seperti teori ,penggunaan statistic  uji itu sendiri terbuka untuk analisis kritis , meskipun komentar kritis pada kertas di bidang ekonomi dalam jurnal bergengsi seperti American Economic Review telah menurun drastic dalam 40 tahun terakhir .
This has been attributed to journals' incentives to maximize citations in order to rank higher on the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI).	Ini telah dikaitkan dengan insentif jurnal ' untuk memaksimalkan kutipan untuk peringkat lebih tinggi pada Citation Index Ilmu Sosial( SSCI ) .
In applied economics, input-output models employing linear programming methods are quite common.	Dalam ekonomi terapan , model input-output menggunakan metode pemrograman linear cukup umum .
Large amounts of data are run through computer programs to analyze the impact of certain policies; IMPLAN is one well-known example.	Sejumlah besar data dijalankan melalui program komputer untuk menganalisis dampak kebijakan tertentu ;Implan merupakan salah satu contoh yang terkenal .
Experimental economics has promoted the use of scientifically controlled experiments.	Ekonomi eksperimental telah mempromosikan penggunaan eksperimen ilmiah terkontrol .
This has reduced long-noted distinction of economics from natural sciences allowed direct tests of what were previously taken as axioms. In some cases these have found that the axioms are not entirely correct; for example, the ultimatum game has revealed that people reject unequal offers.	Hal ini telah mengurangi perbedaan panjang dicatat ekonomi dari ilmu alam diperbolehkan tes langsung dari apa yang sebelumnya diambil sebagai aksioma . Dalam beberapa kasus ini telah menemukan bahwa aksioma yang tidak sepenuhnya benar ;misalnya , permainan ultimatum telah mengungkapkan bahwa orang-orang menolak penawaran yang tidak sama .
In behavioral economics, psychologist Daniel Kahneman won the Nobel Prize in economics in 2002 for his and Amos Tversky's empirical discovery of several cognitive biases and heuristics. Similar empirical testing occurs in neuroeconomics.	Dalam ilmu ekonomi perilaku , psikolog Daniel Kahneman memenangkan Hadiah Nobel di bidang ekonomi pada tahun 2002 untuk penemuan empiris dan Amos Tversky tentang beberapa bias kognitif dan heuristik . Pengujian empiris serupa terjadi di Neuroekonomi .
Another example is the assumption of narrowly selfish preferences versus a model that tests for selfish, altruistic, and cooperative preferences.	Contoh lain adalah asumsi preferensi sempitegois dibandingkan model yang menguji preferensi yang mementingkan diri sendiri ,altruistik , dan kooperatif .
These techniques have led some to argue that economics is a "genuine science."	Teknik-teknik ini telah membuat beberapa orang berpendapat bahwa ekonomi adalah" ilmu sejati . "
Profession	Profesi
The professionalization of economics, reflected in the growth of graduate programs on the subject, has been described as "the main change in economics since around 1900".	Profesionalisasi ekonomi, tercermin dalam pertumbuhan program pascasarjana tentang topic ini, telah digambarkan sebagai "perubahan utama di bidang ekonomi sejak sekitar tahun 1900".
Most major universities and many colleges have a major, school, or department in which academic degrees are awarded in the subject, whether in the liberal arts, business, or for professional study.	Sebagian besar universitas besar dan banyak perguruan tinggi memiliki besar, sekolah, atau departemen di mana gelar akademik diberikan dalam subjek, baik dalams eni liberal, bisnis, atau untuk studi profesional.
In the private sector, professional economists are employed as consultants and in industry, including banking and finance.	Di sector swasta, ekonom profesional yang bekerja sebagai konsultan dan industri, termasuk perbankan dan keuangan.
Economists also work for various government departments and agencies, for example, the national Treasury, Central Bank or Bureau of Statistics.	Para ekonom juga bekerja untuk berbagai departemen dan instansi pemerintah, misalnya, Treasury nasional, Bank Sentral atau Biro Statistik.
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (commonly known as the Nobel Prize in Economics) is a prize awarded to economists each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field.	The Nobel Memorial Prize dalam Ilmu Ekonomi (umumnya dikenal sebagaiHadiah Nobel di bidang Ekonomi) adalah hadiah yang diberikan kepadaekonom setiap tahun untuk kontribusi intelektual yang luar biasa di lapangan.

Syarifa Nur / 16611621 / 3SA04

Komunikasi Bisnis #

Related subjects

English	Indonesia
Economics is one social science among several and has fields bordering on other areas, including economic geography,	Ekonomi adalah ilmu social  satu dari beberapa di antara yang memiliki bidang yang berbatasan dengan daerah lain, termasuk geografi ekonomi,
Economic history, public choic, energy economics, cultural economics and institutional economics	sejarah ekonomi, pilihan umum, energi ekonomi, budaya ekonomi, ekonomi keluarga dan ekonomi.
political economy is the interdisciplinary study that combines economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions,	Ekonomi politik adalah studi antar disiplin yang menggabungkan ilmu ekonomi, hukum dan ilmu politik dalam menjelaskan bagaimana politik
the political environment, and the economic system (capitalist, socialist, mixed) influence each other.	Lembaga lingkungan politik dan sistem ekonomi (kapitalis, social, campuran) mempengaruhi satu sama lain.
History of economic thought and History of macroeconomic thought Economic writings date from earlier Mesopotamian, Greek, Roman, Indian subcontinent, Chinese, Persian, and Arab civilizations	Sejarah pemikiran ekonomi dan sejarah pemikiran ekonomi makro Ekonomi sebelumnya berasal dari  Mesopotamia, Yunani, Romawi, India benua, Cina, Persia dan  peradaban Arab.
Notable writers from antiquity through to the 14th century include Aristotle, Xenophon, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya), Qin Shi Huang, Thomas Aquinas, and Ibn Khaldun	Penulis terkenal dari zaman kuno melalui abad ke-14 meliputi Aristoteles, Xenophon, Sun Tzu (juga dikenal sebagai Kautilya), Qin Shi Huang, Thomas Aquinas dan Ibnu Khaldun
The works of Aristotle had a profound influence on Aquinas, who in turn influenced the late scholastics of the 14th to 17th centuries.	Karya-karya Aristoteles  sangat mempengaruhi karya pada Aquinas, yang pada gilirannya mempengaruhi bidang pelajarannya membentuk akhir pada abad 14-17.

Two groups, later called "mercantilists" and "physiocrats", more directly influenced the subsequent development of the subject. Both groups were associated with the rise of economic nationalism and modern capitalism in Europe	Dua kelompok, yang kemudian disebut "mercantilists" dan "physiocrats", lebih langsung mempengaruhi perkembangan berikutnya.  Kedua kelompok dikaitkan dengan munculnya ekonomi nasionalisme dan kapitalisme modern di Eropa
Mercantilism was an economic doctrine that flourished from the 16th to 18th century in a prolific pamphlet literature, whether of merchants or statesmen. It held that a nation's wealth depended on its accumulation of gold and silver.	Merkantilisme adalah doktrin ekonomi yang berkembang dari abad ke-16 hingga 18 dalam literatur produktif pamflet, apakah dari pedagang atau negarawan. Hal ini diselenggarakan bahwa kekayaan bangsa bergantung pada akumulasi dari emas dan perak.
Nations without access to mines could obtain gold and silver from trade only by selling goods abroad and restricting imports other than of gold and silver	Bangsa-bangsa tanpa akses ke tambang bisa mendapatkan emas dan perak dari perdagangan hanya dengan menjual barang-barang luar negeri dan membatasi impor lain daripada emas dan perak
The doctrine called for importing cheap raw materials to be used in manufacturing goods,	Doktrin disebut untuk mengimpor bahan baku murah untuk digunakan dalam pembuatan barang-barang,
which could be exported, and for state regulation to impose protective tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and prohibit manufacturing in the colonies.	yang bisa diekspor, dan peraturan negara untuk memaksakan pada barang-barang manufaktur asing tarif pelindung dan melarang manufaktur di koloni.
Modern economic analysis is customarily said to have begun with Adam Smith (1723–1790).	Analisis ekonomi modern bermula dengan Adam Smith (1723-1790).
Smith was harshly critical of the mercantilists but described the physiocratic system "with all its imperfections" as "perhaps the purest approximation to the truth that has yet been published" on the subject.	Smith dengan  kasar mengkritik mercantilists tapi menggambarkan sistem physiocratic "dengan semua ketidaksempurnaan" sebagai "mungkin pendekatan yang paling murni kebenaran yang belum diterbitkan" pada subjek.

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What are the fields in economics? Economists organize their discipline in fields from agricultural economics to urban economics. Many economists specialize in a field by publishing original essays on topics and teaching courses in a specific field. The fields are in two sets: Those that develop core skills and those that emphasize application of the skills in specific settings. The core itself involves two modes of analysis. The Skills page gives simple examples. First, mathematical description of economic phenomena allows derivation of relationships. This mode of thought is called economic theory. Mathematics allows arguing by deductive reasoning from stated premises to a conclusion. It offers the internal consistency of mathematical proofs but requires no evidence of applicability. The second core method looks for evidence based on observing economic phenomena. It draws inference from persistent patterns. A consistent pattern that is distinct from the complexity and randomness in nature is likely to have meaning.  This mode of thought is called inductive reasoning. It is the mode of analysis of economic historians, statisticians, and experimenters. The study of formal methods for drawing inferences from statistical evidence in economics is called econometrics. Many advances in economic understanding come from the interaction between deduction and induction. When mathematical analysis yields new insights, the historians, statisticians, and experimenters look for ways to judge whether available evidence is consistent with the theory. When observation shows phenomena that are inconsistent with available theories, economic theorists look for new theories. The core fields are in item C on the list of fields shown below. Most economists concentrate their work and teaching in an applied field, that is, in the other categories shown below. They study the history of the phenomena and adapt the core theoretical ideas of economics to offer explanations. They develop a variety of methods to observe and measure events and apply econometric methods to test hypotheses. For example, international economists study the history of trade, balance of payments, and exchange rates. They will understand both the economic theories and the econometric findings that explain international economic phenomena. The fields of economics, however, have fuzzy boundaries because economic events are interconnected. Every transaction has a buyer and a seller; each economic event has extended consequences. A change in a wage rate will affect the cost of the goods the workers produce as well as change the income and consumption patterns of the workers’ households. An economist working in one field will be aware of connections to the rest of the economy. The fields of economics, then, are more signposts than fences. They include the core areas of mathematical and statistical methods as well as the many arenas in which the core methods are applied. Most undergraduate Programs include study in the core fields and in a selection of applied fields. The standard classification of economic fields given below appears in the Journal of Economic Literature . These field labels provide enduring markers on the terrain of economic thought. Journal of Economic Literature Classification of Fields A. General Economics and Teaching -- The principles course in the economics curriculum develops core ideas. The course also provides the big picture of how individual economic events fit together to shape aggregate outcomes. Mastering basic ideas and getting a sense of how the parts fit into the whole is an essential entry point to the study of other fields and more advanced ideas in economics. The A category also includes discussion of the teaching of economics. B. Schools of Economic Thought and Methodology -- Economists who study the history of economic thought investigate how the core ideas in economics have developed. C. Mathematical and Quantitative Methods -- Econometricians develop methods to measure economic phenomena. They apply the scientific method by formulating hypotheses, gathering evidence, and judging whether the evidence is consistent with the hypotheses. Mathematical economists develop tools for finding optimal solutions to economic problems and advance ideas in game theory. Game theory is the method for analyzing how one player chooses strategies in light of knowledge of the possible strategies a rival might choose. Game theory is used to analyze many economic phenomena including the interaction between firms. In recent decades, experimental economists have tested economic theories in laboratories and in the field. return to top D. Microeconomics -- Studying how markets function and the role of prices is of central concern in understanding economics. Investigation of the behavior of individual households, firms, and prices and quantities of specific products like automobiles is called microeconomics. Behavioral economists study the cognitive and emotional dimensions of economic decisions. E. Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics -- The actions of individuals sum to the total activity in a whole economy. In the aggregate, the total amount of products consumed by households and firms must equal the total amount produced. The total amount firms pay to workers and investors must equal the amount households receive in income.  Study of the aggregate relationships in an economy is called macroeconomics.  Economic growth, the role of money and interest rates, and changes in the overall level of prices and the aggregate level of unemployment are central concerns of macroeconomics. F. International Economics -- International economists study trade among nations and the flow of finance across international borders. Globalization and the deficit in the U.S. balance of payments with other countries are current concerns. G. Financial Economics -- Financial economists study the process of saving and investing with a specific concern for how individuals and firms deal with risk. H. Public Economics -- Public finance economists consider the role of government in the economy.  Some focus on evaluating government programs and others focus on the design of tax systems.  Public finance economists are also interested in how the political process makes decisions. Issues of national security and defense appear here as well the study of state and local governments. I. Health, Education, and Welfare -- Some economists focus on the markets and government policies that directly shape access to health care.  Others focus on schools and educational policies. Still others consider the economic circumstances of the poor and evaluate alternative government programs to improve the well-being of the poor. J. Labor and Demographic Economics -- Labor economists study employers’ decisions to hire workers and employees’ decisions to work.  They study how wages are set, the nature of incentives workers face, and the role of minimum wage laws, unions, pensions plans, and training programs. They are also interested in the formation of families, determinants of birth rates, migration, population change, and aging. K. Law and Economics -- Some economists use the tools of economics to study the incentives for human behavior that are defined by the legal system. Property rights, for example, are essential for markets to work well but they can be defined in a variety of ways that have different effects on the well-being of people. L. Industrial Organization -- IO is the study of individual markets, the nature of competition, and the role of prices. Some economists study issues in anti-trust policy. Others study the role of advertising, pricing policies, and how costs vary with the scale of operations. Some IO economists investigate particular industries such as appliances, software, and electricity. In the last decade a number of economists have studied economic issues in sports, recreation, and tourism. return to top M. Business Administration and Business Economics, Marketing, Accounting -- Business economists study decisions made by firms. How do firms maximize profit? What prices should they set and how much should they produce? What is the role of incentives within the firm, of entrepreneurship, and leadership? N. Economic History -- Economic historians explore changes in economic well-being and how economic institutions have developed. The emergence of markets, the forces shaping the industrial revolution, the sources of improvements in agricultural productivity, the influence of railroads and other new technologies provide perspective on current economic issues. O. Economic Development, Technical Change, and Growth -- Economists who are interested in the development of economies often focus on third world countries. Why have some countries developed while others have not? How might the industrialized countries improve the prospects for development around the world? Who gains and who loses with industrialization? P. Economic Systems -- Analysts compare the capital market system to the various forms of socialism and the transition from centrally planned to more market-based economic systems. Economists sometimes address issues in specific countries like China, Cuba, and Poland. Q. Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics, Environmental and Ecological Economics -- Economists study farming, fishery, and forests with a focus on prices, markets, and changing technologies. Natural resource economists study markets for energy (oil, coal, and electricity) and mineral resources. Economists have played an important role in the evolution of policies to promote clean air, water, and land. R. Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics -- Economists analyze the location decisions of households and firms and the associated issues in housing, transportation, and local government. Y. Miscellaneous Categories -- Data, dissertations, and book reviews are classified here. Z. Other Special Topics -- Other special topics include the economics of the arts, religion, and culture. Each major field defined in the JEL has several subfields. Search for the field and subfield terms in Wikipedia and Google for more information about each. Economists add to our collective knowledge by publishing new work in each of the fields above as explained in the finding facts & ideas page. Some of the latest work addresses issues of significant current interest.

Apa saja contoh-contoh bidang ekonomi ? Para ahli ilmu Ekonomi mengatur kedisiplinan mereka dalam bidang ekonomi pertanian ke ekonomi perkotaan . Banyak ahli ekonomi dalam bidang dengan menerbitkan karangan asli pada beberapa topik dan kursus mengajar di bidang tertentu . Bidang- bidang tersebut terdiri dari dua bagian  : Mereka yang mengembangkan keterampilan inti dan orang-orang yang menekankan penerapan keterampilan dalam pengaturan khusus . Inti itu sendiri melibatkan dua mode analisis . Pada bagian halaman keterampilan tersebut memberikan contoh sederhana . Pertama , deskripsi matematis dari fenomena ekonomi memungkinkan asal mula dari hubungan . Ini yang disebut cara berpikir teori ekonomi . Matematika memungkinkan bertolak belakang dengan penalaran deduktif yang berasal dari dasar fikiran untuk sebuah kesimpulan . Hal ini memberikan konsistensi internal bukti matematika tetapi tidak memerlukan bukti penerapan . Metode inti kedua mencari bukti berdasarkan pengamatan fenomena ekonomi . Ia menarik kesimpulan dari pola persisten . Sebuah pola yang konsisten yang berbeda dari kompleksitas dan keacakan di alam cenderung memiliki makna . Ini cara berpikir yang disebut penalaran induktif . Ini adalah modus analisis sejarawan ekonomi , statistik , dan peneliti . Studi tentang metode formal untuk menarik kesimpulan dari bukti statistik di bidang ekonomi disebut ekonometrik . Banyak kemajuan dalam pemahaman ekonomi berasal dari interaksi antara deduksi dan induksi . Ketika analisis matematis menghasilkan wawasan baru, sejarawan , ahli statistik , dan peneliti mencari cara untuk menilai apakah bukti yang ada konsisten dengan teori . Ketika pengamatan menunjukkan fenomena yang tidak sesuai dengan teori yang ada, teori ekonomi mencari teori-teori baru . Bidang inti dalam butir C pada daftar bidang di bawah ini. Sebagian besar ekonom berkonsentrasi bekerja dan mengajar mereka dalam bidang yang diterapkan , yaitu , dalam kategori lain yang ditunjukkan di bawah ini. Mereka mempelajari sejarah fenomena dan mengadaptasi ide-ide teoritis inti ekonomi untuk memberikan penjelasan . Mereka mengembangkan berbagai metode untuk mengamati dan mengukur peristiwa dan menerapkan metode ekonometrik untuk menguji hipotesis . Sebagai contoh, ekonom internasional mempelajari sejarah perdagangan , neraca pembayaran , dan nilai tukar . Mereka akan memahami baik teori-teori ekonomi dan temuan ekonometrik yang menjelaskan fenomena ekonomi internasional . Bidang ekonomi , bagaimanapun, memiliki batas-batas yang tidak jelas karena peristiwa-peristiwa ekonomi yang saling berhubungan . Setiap transaksi memiliki pembeli dan penjual ; setiap peristiwa ekonomi telah memperluas konsekuensi . Perubahan tingkat upah akan mempengaruhi biaya barang pekerja memproduksi serta mengubah pola pendapatan dan konsumsi rumah tangga pekerja . Seorang ekonom yang bekerja di satu bidang akan menyadari koneksi ke seluruh perekonomian. Bidang ekonomi , maka , lebih luas dan netral . Mereka termasuk bidang inti metode matematika dan statistik serta banyak arena di mana metode inti yang diterapkan . Kebanyakan Program sarjana meliputi studi di bidang inti dan pilihan bidang terapan . Klasifikasi standar bidang ekonomi diberikan di bawah ini muncul dalam Journal of Economic Literature . Label lapangan ini memberikan penanda abadi di medan pemikiran ekonomi . Journal of Economic Literature Klasifikasi Bidang A.        Ekonomi Umum dan Pengajaran - Kursus prinsip dalam kurikulum ekonomi mengembangkan ide-ide inti . Kursus ini juga memberikan gambaran besar tentang bagaimana peristiwa ekonomi individu cocok bersama untuk membentuk hasil agregat . Menguasai ide dasar dan mendapatkan rasa bagaimana bagian-bagian masuk ke dalam keseluruhan merupakan entry point penting untuk mempelajari bidang lain dan ide-ide yang lebih maju di bidang ekonomi . Kategori A juga mencakup diskusi tentang ajaran ekonomi . B. Sekolah Pemikiran Ekonomi dan Metodologi - Para ekonom yang mempelajari sejarah pemikiran ekonomi menyelidiki bagaimana ide-ide inti di bidang ekonomi telah dikembangkan. C. Matematika dan Metode Kuantitatif - ekonometri mengembangkan metode untuk mengukur fenomena ekonomi . Mereka menerapkan metode ilmiah dengan merumuskan hipotesis , mengumpulkan bukti , dan menilai apakah bukti-bukti yang konsisten dengan hipotesis . Ekonom Matematika mengembangkan alat untuk menemukan solusi optimal untuk masalah ekonomi dan ide-ide kemajuan dalam teori permainan . Teori permainan adalah metode untuk menganalisis bagaimana satu pemain memilih strategi dalam terang pengetahuan tentang strategi yang mungkin saingan mungkin memilih . Teori permainan digunakan untuk menganalisis berbagai fenomena ekonomi termasuk interaksi antara perusahaan . Dalam beberapa dekade terakhir , ekonom eksperimental telah diuji teori ekonomi di laboratorium dan di lapangan . kembali ke atas D. Ekonomi Mikro - Mempelajari bagaimana pasar fungsi dan peran harga menjadi perhatian utama dalam pemahaman ekonomi . Investigasi perilaku rumah tangga individu, perusahaan , dan harga dan jumlah produk tertentu seperti mobil disebut ekonomi mikro . Ekonom perilaku mempelajari dimensi kognitif dan emosional dari keputusan ekonomi . E. Makro dan Ekonomi Moneter - Tindakan individu dijumlahkan ke aktivitas total dalam ekonomi secara keseluruhan . Secara keseluruhan , jumlah total produk yang dikonsumsi oleh rumah tangga dan perusahaan harus sama dengan jumlah yang dihasilkan . Total jumlah perusahaan membayar kepada pekerja dan investor harus sama dengan jumlah rumah tangga menerima pendapatan . Studi hubungan agregat dalam perekonomian disebut makroekonomi . Pertumbuhan ekonomi , peran uang dan suku bunga , dan perubahan dalam keseluruhan tingkat harga dan tingkat pengangguran agregat kekhawatiran utama makroekonomi . F. Ekonomi Internasional - ekonom Perdagangan internasional studi antar bangsa dan aliran keuangan lintas batas internasional . Globalisasi dan defisit neraca pembayaran AS dengan negara-negara lain adalah keprihatinan saat ini . G. Ekonomi Keuangan - ekonom Keuangan mempelajari proses menabung dan berinvestasi dengan perhatian khusus untuk bagaimana individu dan perusahaan menghadapi risiko . H. Ekonomi Publik - ekonom keuangan publik mempertimbangkan peran pemerintah dalam perekonomian . Beberapa fokus pada evaluasi program-program pemerintah dan lain-lain fokus pada desain sistem pajak . Ekonom keuangan publik juga tertarik pada bagaimana proses politik yang membuat keputusan . Isu keamanan nasional dan pertahanan muncul di sini juga studi tentang negara dan pemerintah daerah . I. Kesehatan , Pendidikan , dan Kesejahteraan - Beberapa ekonom fokus pada pasar dan kebijakan pemerintah yang secara langsung membentuk akses ke perawatan kesehatan . Lain fokus pada sekolah dan kebijakan pendidikan . Yang lain mempertimbangkan keadaan ekonomi orang miskin dan mengevaluasi program pemerintah alternatif untuk meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat miskin . J. Tenaga Kerja dan Demografi Ekonomi - ekonom Buruh mempelajari ' keputusan untuk mempekerjakan pekerja dan karyawan majikan keputusan untuk bekerja . Mereka mempelajari bagaimana upah diatur , sifat insentif pekerja menghadapi , dan peran hukum upah minimum , serikat , rencana pensiun , dan program pelatihan . Mereka juga tertarik pada pembentukan keluarga , faktor-faktor penentu tingkat kelahiran , migrasi , perubahan populasi , dan penuaan . Hukum K. dan Ekonomi - Beberapa ekonom menggunakan alat-alat ekonomi untuk mempelajari insentif bagi perilaku manusia yang didefinisikan oleh sistem hukum . Hak milik , misalnya , sangat penting untuk pasar untuk bekerja dengan baik , tetapi mereka dapat didefinisikan dalam berbagai cara yang memiliki efek yang berbeda pada kesejahteraan rakyat . L. Industrial Organization - IO adalah studi tentang pasar individu , sifat persaingan , dan peran harga . Beberapa ekonom mempelajari isu-isu dalam kebijakan anti-trust . Lainnya mempelajari peran kebijakan iklan , harga, dan bagaimana biaya bervariasi dengan skala operasi . Beberapa ekonom IO menyelidiki industri tertentu seperti peralatan , perangkat lunak , dan listrik . Dalam dekade terakhir sejumlah ekonom telah mempelajari isu-isu ekonomi dalam olahraga , rekreasi , dan pariwisata . kembali ke atas M. Administrasi Bisnis dan Ekonomi Bisnis , Pemasaran , Akuntansi - ekonom Bisnis keputusan yang dibuat oleh perusahaan-perusahaan belajar . Bagaimana perusahaan memaksimalkan keuntungan ? Harga apa yang harus mereka menetapkan dan berapa banyak mereka harus menghasilkan ? Apa peran insentif dalam perusahaan , kewirausahaan , dan kepemimpinan ? Sejarah Ekonomi N. - sejarawan Ekonomi mengeksplorasi perubahan dalam kesejahteraan ekonomi dan bagaimana lembaga-lembaga ekonomi telah dikembangkan . Munculnya pasar , pasukan membentuk revolusi industri , sumber peningkatan produktivitas pertanian , pengaruh rel kereta api dan teknologi baru lainnya memberikan perspektif tentang isu-isu ekonomi saat ini . Pembangunan Ekonomi O. , Technical Change, dan Pertumbuhan - Ekonom yang tertarik dalam pengembangan ekonomi sering fokus pada negara-negara dunia ketiga . Mengapa beberapa negara maju sementara yang lain tidak ? Bagaimana mungkin negara-negara industri meningkatkan prospek pembangunan di seluruh dunia ? Siapa keuntungan dan siapa yang dirugikan dengan industrialisasi ? Sistem Ekonomi P. - Analis membandingkan sistem pasar modal ke berbagai bentuk sosialisme dan transisi dari pusat direncanakan untuk sistem ekonomi yang lebih berbasis pasar . Para ekonom kadang-kadang menangani masalah-masalah di negara-negara tertentu seperti China , Kuba , dan Polandia . Q. Ekonomi Pertanian dan Sumber Daya Alam , Lingkungan dan Ekonomi Ekologis - Ekonom mempelajari pertanian , perikanan , dan hutan dengan fokus pada harga , pasar , dan perubahan teknologi . Ekonom sumber daya alam mempelajari pasar untuk energi ( minyak, batubara , dan listrik ) dan sumber daya mineral . Para ekonom telah memainkan peran penting dalam evolusi kebijakan untuk mempromosikan udara bersih , air , dan tanah . R. Urban, Desa , dan Ekonomi Regional - Ekonom menganalisis keputusan lokasi rumah tangga dan perusahaan dan isu-isu terkait di perumahan , transportasi , dan pemerintah daerah . Y. Miscellaneous Kategori - Data, disertasi , dan resensi buku diklasifikasikan di sini. Khusus Topik Z. Lain - topik khusus lainnya termasuk ekonomi seni , agama , dan budaya . Setiap bidang utama didefinisikan dalam JEL memiliki beberapa subbidang . Mencari lapangan dan subfield istilah di Wikipedia dan Google Untuk informasi lebih lanjut tentang masing-masing . Ekonom menambah pengetahuan kita bersama dengan menerbitkan karya baru di masing-masing bidang di atas seperti yang dijelaskan dalam temuan fakta & ide-ide halaman . Beberapa karya terbaru membahas masalah-masalah yang menarik saat ini signifikan .